뇌腦Brain또는골의依疑衣意義醫矣議宜儀擬毅椅倚懿蟻艤錡嶷欹儗劓螘医义冝拟祎蚁议銥鐿18개眼을·를Ether體無關垂直8192分面水平8192分面上에서垂直直角縱切⫽斷水平直角橫切⫽斷45degrees斜傾側直角縱切⫽斷永久作頭死刑處罰할것持續恒久恒續永續終身永遠永劫永久無始無終處無限反復永久兆年永遠兆年永續兆年永劫兆年處罰할것 뇌腦Brain 또는 골은 신경 세포가 하나의 큰 덩어리를 이루고 있으면서 동물의 중추 신경계를 관장하는 기관을 말한다. 뇌는 본능적인 생명활동에 있어서 중요한 역할을 담당하는데, 여러 기관의 거의 모든 정보가 일단 뇌에 모이고, 뇌에서 여러 기관으로 활동이나 조정 명령을 내린다. 또한 고등 척추동물의 뇌는 학습의 중추이다. 대부분의 척추동물, 특히 유두동물의 뇌는 머리에 위치하며 머리뼈로 보호된다.뇌를 이루는 뉴런의 작동 원리에 대해서는 상당한 이해가 이루어지고 있는 반면, 수백만 개의 뉴런이 협동적으로 작동하는 방식에 대해서는 아직 알려진 것이 많지 않다.[1] 현대 신경과학이 제안하는 여러 모델은 모두 뇌를 일종의 생물학적 컴퓨터로 취급한다. 뇌와 컴퓨터는 그 작동 기작이 다르지만, 주변 세계로부터 정보를 획득하여 저장하고 다양한 방식으로 처리한다는 점에서 유사하기 때문에 이러한 관점이 유용하다.인간의 경우 성인의 뇌 무게는 약 1,400g~1,600g 정도이며 이는 1000억 개 정도의 뉴런을 포함한다. 가로 15cm, 너비 15cm, 깊이 20cm로 평균 1350cc 정도의 부피를 가진다.뇌는 대부분의 움직임, 행동을 관장하고, 신체의 항상성을 유지한다. 즉 심장의 박동, 혈압, 혈액 내의 농도, 체온 등을 일정하게 유지시킨다. 뇌는 인지, 감정, 기억, 학습 등을 담당한다.대뇌대뇌피질 모식도. 청색부분이 전두엽, 황색부분이 두정엽, 녹색부분이 측두엽, 적색부분이 후두엽을 나타낸다.대뇌는 감각과 수의 운동의 중추일 뿐만 아니라 기억이나 판단 등 정신활동의 중추이다. 대뇌는 뇌량으로 연결된 2개의 대뇌반구로 이루어져 있으며 뇌량에 의한 연결은 두 대뇌 반구의 신호전달과 상호작용에 중요한 역할을 한다.대뇌의 바깥층은 뉴런의 신경세포체가 모여 회색을 띠고있어 회백질이라 불리고 안쪽 층은 신경섬유가 모여 있고 흰색을 띠고 있어 백질이라 불린다.회백질은 대뇌피질, 기저핵, 변연계를 포함하고 있다. 기저핵은 운동기능의 조절과 관련이 있고 변연계는 대뇌에서 가장 원시적인 부분으로 공포와 같은 감정반응을 담당하며 편도체, 띠이랑, 해마 등을 포함한다. 대뇌피질은 위치에 따라 전두엽, 두정엽, 측두엽, 후두엽의 네 개의 엽으로 구성되어 있다. 전두엽 전두엽은 대뇌반구의 전방에 있는 부분으로 전전두엽 관련 영역에서 기억력·사고력 등의 고등행동을 관장하며 다른 연합영역으로부터의 정보를 조정하고 행동을 조절한다. 두정엽 두정엽은 마루엽이라고도 하며 중심고랑과 두정후두고랑 사이, 바깥쪽 틈새 상부에 있어 기관에 운동명령을 내리는 운동중추가 있다. 체감각 피질과 감각연합영역이 있어 촉각, 압각, 통증 등의 체감각의 처리에 관여하며 피부, 근골격계, 내장, 미뢰로부터의 감각신호를 담당한다. 측두엽 측두엽은 대뇌반구의 양쪽 가에 있는 부분으로 청각연합영역과 청각피질이 있어 청각정보의 처리를 담당한다. 이외에도 일차시각피질에서 유래한 정보가 도달해 색, 모양등이 인지되며, 얼굴에 특이적으로 인식하는 세포가 존재한다. 내측두엽 부분은 해마와 함께 기억형성에 주요한 역할을 수행한다. 후두엽 후두엽은 뒤통수엽이라고도 하며 바깥쪽 표면에서 두정후두고랑 위쪽 끝부분과 후두전 패임을 잇는 가상적인 선의 뒤쪽 부분이고, 안쪽 표면에서는 두정후두고랑의 뒤쪽 부분이다. 시각연합영역과 시각피질이라고 하는 시각중추가 있어 시각정보의 처리를 담당한다. 눈으로 들어온 시각정보가 시각피질에 도착하면 사물의 위치, 모양, 운동 상태를 분석한다. 여기에 장애가 생기면 눈의 다른 부위에 이상이 없더라도 볼 수 없게 된다. 해마 해마는 장기기억 전환에 중요한 역할을 수행하는 기관이다. 또한 대뇌 피질에 저장되어 있는 기억들의 인출을 담당하며 해마 앞에 있는 편도체는 감정적 기억형성에 주된 역할을 수행한다. 해마와 함께 주변에 있는 비피질 영역들은 해마와 함께 기억형성을 담당한다. 또한 해마는 파페츠 회로라고 알려진 기억회로의 일부를 담당하고 있다. 소뇌 뇌. 소뇌는 자주색으로 돼 있다. 소뇌는 감각 인지의 통합과 운동근육의 조정과 제어에서 중요한 역할을 담당하는 뇌의 부분으로 교뇌 등쪽의 제4뇌실에 들씌워지듯이 존재하는 큰 구조이며, 가로 10cm, 세로 5cm, 높이 3cm, 무게는 약 150g 정도이다.소뇌의 주된 작용은 골격근의 활동 조절을 하는 것이다. 어떤 운동을 할지, 그러기 위해서는 몇 가지 근육을 어떻게 사용해야 하는지에 대한 계획은 대뇌 피질의 전두엽에서 세워지는데, 실제로 운동이 시작되고 나서 그 계획대로 여러 활동이 실현되도록 피드백 기구로 관여하는 것은 소뇌이다.소뇌로 들어갈 감각정보는 몸의 주변부에 있는 체성 수용체와 내이 안에 위치한 반고리관과 전정기관으로부터 보내진다. 또한 소뇌는 대뇌 피질의 뉴런으로부터 오는 운동정보를 받아 움직임을 조절하게 된다.소뇌는 근육운동, 평형감각 조절을 한다. 만약에 소뇌가 없다면 땅에 있는 물건을 잡으려고 할 때 손이 엉뚱한 방향으로 가더라도 조절할 수 없고, 다리에 힘이 없어져서 서있지도 못한다. 뇌간 뇌와 척수를 이어주는 역할을 한다. 다양한 운동과 감각정보를 매개하는 신경핵들이 집중되어 있다. 특히 뇌간의 연수는 안구 운동, 심장박동, 호흡 등 매우 기본적인 생명활동의 중추라고 볼 수 있는 부분이다. 또한 뇌간의 중뇌에는 신경전달물질을 분비 및 조절하는 신경세포들이 모여있다. 간뇌 간뇌는 항상성의 중추로 뇌줄기와 대뇌 사이에 존재한다. 간뇌는 시상, 시상하부와 뇌하수체와 송과샘을 포함하는 내분비조직으로 나뉜다. 신경세포들이 모여있는 장소다. 시상 시상은 간뇌의 대부분을 차지하고 있으며 감각정보와 운동정보를 처리하여 대뇌로 보내는 기능을 한다. 시상하부 시상하부는 시상 밑에 위치하여 항상성 유지를 위한 중추로 작용한다. 시상하부는 내분비계와 자율신경계의 기능을 조절하며 망상계를 통해 다양한 감각수용기를 포함한 여러 부위로부터 정보를 받아 시상으로 보낸다. 대표적인 기능으로는 체온 유지, 삼투압 유지, 음식 섭취 조절, 생식기능 조절등이 있다. 뇌하수체 뇌하수체는 뇌하수체전엽과 뇌하수체후엽으로 이루어져 있다. 뇌하수체 후엽은 시상하부핵에서 합성된 신경호르몬을 분비하는 역할을 하며 뇌하수체 전엽은 뇌하수체 전엽 호르몬을 분비하여 다른 기관에서의 호르몬 분비를 조절한다. 뇌하수체 전엽 호르몬의 조절은 시상하부의 신경호르몬에 의해 조절된다. 송과샘 송과샘은 간뇌 뒤쪽에 위치해 있으며 멜라토닌을 분비하는 작은 기관이다. 멜라토닌은 일주기 리듬 조절에 관여하는 물질이다. 중뇌 중뇌는 뇌줄기 아래쪽 부위와 간뇌 사이의 비교적 작은 지역으로 주로 안구 운동, 홍채 조절의 역할을 한다. 중뇌는 상구와 하구로 나눌 수 있는데 각각의 기능은 차이를 보인다. 상구는 주로 시각에 관여하는 부분이다. 조류에서는 이 상구 부분이 시각의 주된 처리를 담당하지만 인간 같은 포유류에서는 단지 시각의 반사 작용에만 관계할 뿐이다. 눈에 빛이 들어왔을 때 동공을 수축하거나, 수정체의 두께를 조절하여 초점을 맞추는 작용 등이 여기에 관계한다. 하구는 주로 청각에 관여하여, 귀에서 들어온 신호는 여기를 한 번 거쳐 대뇌로 향하게 된다. 대뇌각, 흑질, 적핵 등의 구조는 소뇌와 함께 운동에 관련된 신호를 대뇌에서 척수로 전달하는 역할을 맡고 있다. 교뇌 교뇌는 중뇌와 연수 사이 뇌줄기에 존재하며 앞쪽으로 돌출되어있다. 교뇌의 주요 작용은 소뇌와 대뇌 사이의 정보전달을 중계하는 것이며 연수와 함께 호흡 조절의 역할을 하기도 한다. 숨뇌(연수) 숨뇌(연수)는 뇌간에서는 가장 아래이며 전체 뇌의 구조에 있어서도 가장 아래에 있다. 척수와 곧바로 연결되어 있으며 호흡이나 혈액 순환을 조절한다. 연수에서 나가는 신경은 뇌 전체에서 나가는 뇌신경 12쌍 중 8쌍에 달하며 이들은 동물의 생존을 유지하는 데 중요한 역할을 한다

 뇌腦Brain또는골의依疑衣意義醫矣議宜儀擬毅椅倚懿蟻艤錡嶷欹儗劓螘医义冝拟祎蚁议銥鐿18개眼을·를Ether體無關垂直8192分面水平8192分面上에서垂直直角縱切⫽斷水平直角橫切⫽斷45degrees斜傾側直角縱切⫽斷永久作頭死刑處罰할것持續恒久恒續永續終身永遠永劫永久無始無終處無限反復永久兆年永遠兆年永續兆年永劫兆年處罰할것

뇌腦Brain 또는 골은 신경 세포가 하나의 큰 덩어리를 이루고 있으면서 동물의 중추 신경계를 관장하는 기관을 말한다. 뇌는 본능적인 생명활동에 있어서 중요한 역할을 담당하는데, 여러 기관의 거의 모든 정보가 일단 뇌에 모이고, 뇌에서 여러 기관으로 활동이나 조정 명령을 내린다. 또한 고등 척추동물의 뇌는 학습의 중추이다. 대부분의 척추동물, 특히 유두동물의 뇌는 머리에 위치하며 머리뼈로 보호된다.뇌를 이루는 뉴런의 작동 원리에 대해서는 상당한 이해가 이루어지고 있는 반면, 수백만 개의 뉴런이 협동적으로 작동하는 방식에 대해서는 아직 알려진 것이 많지 않다.[1] 현대 신경과학이 제안하는 여러 모델은 모두 뇌를 일종의 생물학적 컴퓨터로 취급한다. 뇌와 컴퓨터는 그 작동 기작이 다르지만, 주변 세계로부터 정보를 획득하여 저장하고 다양한 방식으로 처리한다는 점에서 유사하기 때문에 이러한 관점이 유용하다.인간의 경우 성인의 뇌 무게는 약 1,400g~1,600g 정도이며 이는 1000억 개 정도의 뉴런을 포함한다. 가로 15cm, 너비 15cm, 깊이 20cm로 평균 1350cc 정도의 부피를 가진다.뇌는 대부분의 움직임, 행동을 관장하고, 신체의 항상성을 유지한다. 즉 심장의 박동, 혈압, 혈액 내의 농도, 체온 등을 일정하게 유지시킨다. 뇌는 인지, 감정, 기억, 학습 등을 담당한다.대뇌대뇌피질 모식도. 청색부분이 전두엽, 황색부분이 두정엽, 녹색부분이 측두엽, 적색부분이 후두엽을 나타낸다.대뇌는 감각과 수의 운동의 중추일 뿐만 아니라 기억이나 판단 등 정신활동의 중추이다. 대뇌는 뇌량으로 연결된 2개의 대뇌반구로 이루어져 있으며 뇌량에 의한 연결은 두 대뇌 반구의 신호전달과 상호작용에 중요한 역할을 한다.대뇌의 바깥층은 뉴런의 신경세포체가 모여 회색을 띠고있어 회백질이라 불리고 안쪽 층은 신경섬유가 모여 있고 흰색을 띠고 있어 백질이라 불린다.회백질은 대뇌피질, 기저핵, 변연계를 포함하고 있다. 기저핵은 운동기능의 조절과 관련이 있고 변연계는 대뇌에서 가장 원시적인 부분으로 공포와 같은 감정반응을 담당하며 편도체, 띠이랑, 해마 등을 포함한다. 대뇌피질은 위치에 따라 전두엽, 두정엽, 측두엽, 후두엽의 네 개의 엽으로 구성되어 있다.

전두엽

전두엽은 대뇌반구의 전방에 있는 부분으로 전전두엽 관련 영역에서 기억력·사고력 등의 고등행동을 관장하며 다른 연합영역으로부터의 정보를 조정하고 행동을 조절한다.

두정엽

두정엽은 마루엽이라고도 하며 중심고랑과 두정후두고랑 사이, 바깥쪽 틈새 상부에 있어 기관에 운동명령을 내리는 운동중추가 있다. 체감각 피질과 감각연합영역이 있어 촉각, 압각, 통증 등의 체감각의 처리에 관여하며 피부, 근골격계, 내장, 미뢰로부터의 감각신호를 담당한다.

측두엽

측두엽은 대뇌반구의 양쪽 가에 있는 부분으로 청각연합영역과 청각피질이 있어 청각정보의 처리를 담당한다. 이외에도 일차시각피질에서 유래한 정보가 도달해 색, 모양등이 인지되며, 얼굴에 특이적으로 인식하는 세포가 존재한다. 내측두엽 부분은 해마와 함께 기억형성에 주요한 역할을 수행한다.

후두엽

후두엽은 뒤통수엽이라고도 하며 바깥쪽 표면에서 두정후두고랑 위쪽 끝부분과 후두전 패임을 잇는 가상적인 선의 뒤쪽 부분이고, 안쪽 표면에서는 두정후두고랑의 뒤쪽 부분이다. 시각연합영역과 시각피질이라고 하는 시각중추가 있어 시각정보의 처리를 담당한다. 눈으로 들어온 시각정보가 시각피질에 도착하면 사물의 위치, 모양, 운동 상태를 분석한다. 여기에 장애가 생기면 눈의 다른 부위에 이상이 없더라도 볼 수 없게 된다.

해마

해마는 장기기억 전환에 중요한 역할을 수행하는 기관이다. 또한 대뇌 피질에 저장되어 있는 기억들의 인출을 담당하며 해마 앞에 있는 편도체는 감정적 기억형성에 주된 역할을 수행한다. 해마와 함께 주변에 있는 비피질 영역들은 해마와 함께 기억형성을 담당한다. 또한 해마는 파페츠 회로라고 알려진 기억회로의 일부를 담당하고 있다.

소뇌

뇌. 소뇌는 자주색으로 돼 있다.

소뇌는 감각 인지의 통합과 운동근육의 조정과 제어에서 중요한 역할을 담당하는 뇌의 부분으로 교뇌 등쪽의 제4뇌실에 들씌워지듯이 존재하는 큰 구조이며, 가로 10cm, 세로 5cm, 높이 3cm, 무게는 약 150g 정도이다.소뇌의 주된 작용은 골격근의 활동 조절을 하는 것이다. 어떤 운동을 할지, 그러기 위해서는 몇 가지 근육을 어떻게 사용해야 하는지에 대한 계획은 대뇌 피질의 전두엽에서 세워지는데, 실제로 운동이 시작되고 나서 그 계획대로 여러 활동이 실현되도록 피드백 기구로 관여하는 것은 소뇌이다.소뇌로 들어갈 감각정보는 몸의 주변부에 있는 체성 수용체와 내이 안에 위치한 반고리관과 전정기관으로부터 보내진다. 또한 소뇌는 대뇌 피질의 뉴런으로부터 오는 운동정보를 받아 움직임을 조절하게 된다.소뇌는 근육운동, 평형감각 조절을 한다. 만약에 소뇌가 없다면 땅에 있는 물건을 잡으려고 할 때 손이 엉뚱한 방향으로 가더라도 조절할 수 없고, 다리에 힘이 없어져서 서있지도 못한다.

뇌간

 뇌와 척수를 이어주는 역할을 한다. 다양한 운동과 감각정보를 매개하는 신경핵들이 집중되어 있다. 특히 뇌간의 연수는 안구 운동, 심장박동, 호흡 등 매우 기본적인 생명활동의 중추라고 볼 수 있는 부분이다. 또한 뇌간의 중뇌에는 신경전달물질을 분비 및 조절하는 신경세포들이 모여있다.

간뇌

 간뇌는 항상성의 중추로 뇌줄기와 대뇌 사이에 존재한다. 간뇌는 시상, 시상하부와 뇌하수체와 송과샘을 포함하는 내분비조직으로 나뉜다. 신경세포들이 모여있는 장소다.

시상

시상은 간뇌의 대부분을 차지하고 있으며 감각정보와 운동정보를 처리하여 대뇌로 보내는 기능을 한다.

시상하부

시상하부는 시상 밑에 위치하여 항상성 유지를 위한 중추로 작용한다. 시상하부는 내분비계와 자율신경계의 기능을 조절하며 망상계를 통해 다양한 감각수용기를 포함한 여러 부위로부터 정보를 받아 시상으로 보낸다. 대표적인 기능으로는 체온 유지, 삼투압 유지, 음식 섭취 조절, 생식기능 조절등이 있다.

뇌하수체

뇌하수체는 뇌하수체전엽과 뇌하수체후엽으로 이루어져 있다. 뇌하수체 후엽은 시상하부핵에서 합성된 신경호르몬을 분비하는 역할을 하며 뇌하수체 전엽은 뇌하수체 전엽 호르몬을 분비하여 다른 기관에서의 호르몬 분비를 조절한다. 뇌하수체 전엽 호르몬의 조절은 시상하부의 신경호르몬에 의해 조절된다.

송과샘

송과샘은 간뇌 뒤쪽에 위치해 있으며 멜라토닌을 분비하는 작은 기관이다. 멜라토닌은 일주기 리듬 조절에 관여하는 물질이다.

중뇌

중뇌는 뇌줄기 아래쪽 부위와 간뇌 사이의 비교적 작은 지역으로 주로 안구 운동, 홍채 조절의 역할을 한다. 중뇌는 상구와 하구로 나눌 수 있는데 각각의 기능은 차이를 보인다. 상구는 주로 시각에 관여하는 부분이다. 조류에서는 이 상구 부분이 시각의 주된 처리를 담당하지만 인간 같은 포유류에서는 단지 시각의 반사 작용에만 관계할 뿐이다. 눈에 빛이 들어왔을 때 동공을 수축하거나, 수정체의 두께를 조절하여 초점을 맞추는 작용 등이 여기에 관계한다. 하구는 주로 청각에 관여하여, 귀에서 들어온 신호는 여기를 한 번 거쳐 대뇌로 향하게 된다. 대뇌각, 흑질, 적핵 등의 구조는 소뇌와 함께 운동에 관련된 신호를 대뇌에서 척수로 전달하는 역할을 맡고 있다.

교뇌

교뇌는 중뇌와 연수 사이 뇌줄기에 존재하며 앞쪽으로 돌출되어있다. 교뇌의 주요 작용은 소뇌와 대뇌 사이의 정보전달을 중계하는 것이며 연수와 함께 호흡 조절의 역할을 하기도 한다.

숨뇌(연수)

숨뇌(연수)는 뇌간에서는 가장 아래이며 전체 뇌의 구조에 있어서도 가장 아래에 있다. 척수와 곧바로 연결되어 있으며 호흡이나 혈액 순환을 조절한다. 연수에서 나가는 신경은 뇌 전체에서 나가는 뇌신경 12쌍 중 8쌍에 달하며 이들은 동물의 생존을 유지하는 데 중요한 역할을 한다


















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Four major military campaigns were launched by the Mongol Empire, and later the Yuan dynasty, against the kingdom of Đại Việt (modern-day northern Vietnam) ruled by the Trần dynasty and the kingdom of Champa (modern-day central Vietnam) in 1258, 1282–1284, 1285, and 1287–88. The campaigns are treated by a number of scholars as a success due to the establishment of tributary relations with Đại Việt despite the Mongols suffering major military defeats.[14][15][16] In contrast, modern Vietnamese historiography regards the war as a major victory against the foreign invaders.[17][14] The first invasion began in 1258 under the united Mongol Empire, as it looked for alternative paths to invade the Song dynasty. The Mongol general Uriyangkhadai was successful in capturing the Vietnamese capital Thang Long (modern-day Hanoi) before turning north in 1259 to invade the Song dynasty in modern-day Guangxi as part of a coordinated Mongol attack with armies attacking in Sichuan under Möngke Khan and other Mongol armies attacking in modern-day Shandong and Henan.[18] The first invasion also established tributary relations between the Vietnamese kingdom, formerly a Song dynasty tributary state, and the Yuan dynasty. In 1283, Kublai Khan and the Yuan dynasty launched a naval invasion of Champa that also resulted in the establishment of tributary relations. Intending to demand greater tribute and direct Yuan oversight of local affairs in Đại Việt and Champa, the Yuan launched another invasion in 1285. The second invasion of Đại Việt failed to accomplish its goals, and the Yuan launched a third invasion in 1287 with the intent of replacing the uncooperative Đại Việt ruler Trần Nhân Tông with the defected Trần prince Trần Ích Tắc. By the end of the second and third invasions, which involved both initial successes and eventual major defeats for the Mongols, both Đại Việt and Champa decided to accept the nominal supremacy of the Yuan dynasty and became tributary states to avoid further conflict.[19][20] Background See also: Mongol conquest of China The conquest of Yunnan Dali and Dai Viet in 1142 Kublai Khan, the fifth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, and the founder of the Yuan dynasty By the 1250s, the Mongol Empire controlled large tracts of Eurasia including much of Eastern Europe, Anatolia, North China, Mongolia, Manchuria, Central Asia, Tibet and Southwest Asia. Möngke Khan (r. 1251–59) planned to attack the Song dynasty in southern China from three directions in 1259.[21] To avoid a costly frontal assault on the Song, which would have required a risky forced crossing of the lower Yangtze, Möngke decided to establish a base of operations in southwestern China, from which a flank attack could be staged.[21] At the Kurultai of the summer of 1252, Möngke ordered his brother Kublai to lead the southwest campaign against the Song in Sichuan. In the autumn of 1252, 100,000 Mongols advanced to the Tao River, then penetrated the Sichuan Basin, defeating a Song army and established a major base in Sichuan.[21][22] When Mongke learned that the king Duan Xingzhi of Dali in Yunnan (a kingdom ruled by the Duan dynasty) refused to negotiate and that his prime minister Gao Xiang murdered the envoys that Möngke had sent to Dali to demand the king's surrender, Möngke ordered Kublai and Uriyangkhadai to attack Dali in summer 1253.[23] In September 1253, Kublai launched a three-pronged attack on Dali.[22] The western army led by Uriyangkhadai, marching from modern-day Gansu through eastern Tibet toward Dali; the eastern army led by Wang Dezhen marched south from Sichuan, and passed just west of Chengdu before reuniting briefly with Kublai's army in the town of Xichang. Kublai's army met and engaged with Dali forces along the Jinsha River.[23] After several skirmishes in which Dali forces repeatedly turned back the Mongol raids, Kublai's army crossed the river on inflated rafts of sheepskin in the night, and routed Dali defensive positions.[24] With Dali forces in disarray, three Mongol columns quickly captured the capital of Dali on December 15, 1253, and even though its ruler had rejected Kublai's submission order, the capital and its inhabitants were spared.[25] Duan Xingzhi and Gao Xiang both fled, but Gao was soon captured and beheaded.[26] Duan Xingzhi fled to Shanchan (modern-day Kunming) and continued to resist the Mongols with aid from local clans until autumn 1255 when he was finally captured.[26] As they had done during other invasions, the Mongols left the native dynasty in place under the supervision of Mongolian officials.[27] Bin Yang noted that the Duan clan was recruited to assist with further invasions of the Burmese Pagan Empire and the initial successful attack on the Vietnamese kingdom of Đại Việt.[26] Mongol approach to Đại Việt At the end of 1254, Kublai returned to Mongolia to consult with his brother about the khagan title. Uriyangkhadai was left in Yunnan, and from 1254 to 1257 he conducted campaigns against local Yi and Lolo tribes. In early 1257 he returned to Gansu and sent messengers to Mongke's court informing his sovereign that Yunnan was now firmly under Mongolian control. Pleased, the emperor honored and generously rewarded Uriyangkhadai for his fine achievement.[27] Uriyangkhadai subsequently returned to Yunnan and began preparing for the first Mongolian incursions into Southeast Asia.[27] The Đại Việt kingdom, or Annam, emerged in the 960s as the Vietnamese had carved up their territories in northern Vietnam (the Red River Delta) from the local Tang remnant regime since the fall of the Tang empire in 907. The kingdom had gone through four dynasties, all of which had kept a regulated peaceful tributary relationship with the Chinese Song empire. In the autumn of 1257, Uriyangkhadai sent two envoys to the Vietnamese ruler Trần Thái Tông (known as Trần Nhật Cảnh by the Mongols) demanding submission and a passage to attack the Song from the south.[28] Trần Thái Tông opposed the encroachment of a foreign army across his territory to attack their ally, therefore the envoys were imprisoned,[29] and soldiers on elephants were prepared to deter the Mongol troops.[30] After the three successive envoys were imprisoned in the capital Thang Long (modern-day Hanoi) of Đại Việt, Uriyangkhadai invaded Đại Việt with generals Trechecdu and Aju in the rear.[31][4] First invasion of Đại Việt (1258) First Mongol–Vietnamese war (1257-1258) Mongol warrior on horseback, preparing a mounted archery shot. Mongol forces In early 1258, a Mongol column under Uriyangkhadai, the son of Subutai, entered Đại Việt via Yunnan. According to Vietnamese sources, the Mongol army consisted of at least 30,000 soldiers of whom at least 2,000 were Yi troops from the Dali Kingdom.[6] Modern scholarship points to a force of several thousand Mongols, ordered by Kublai to invade with Uriyangkhadai in command, which battled with the Viet forces on 17 January 1258.[32] Some Western sources estimated that the Mongol army consisted of about 3,000 Mongol warriors with an additional 10,000 Yi soldiers.[4] Campaign See also: Battle of Bình Lệ Nguyên Vietnamese elephant, extracted from the Truc Lam Mahasattva scroll 13th-century sword đao and iron-hooks. Trần dynasty period, National Treasure, Vietnam Military History Museum In the Battle of Bình Lệ Nguyên, the Vietnamese used war elephants. Emperor Trần Thái Tông even led his army from atop an elephant.[33] Mongol general Aju ordered his troops to fire arrows at the elephants' feet.[33][30] The animals turned in panic and caused disorder in the Vietnamese army, which was routed.[33][30] The Vietnamese senior leaders were able to escape on pre-prepared boats, while part of their army was destroyed at No Nguyen (modern Việt Trì on the Red River). The remainder of the Đại Việt army again suffered a major defeat in a fierce battle at the Phú Lộ bridge the following day. This led the Vietnamese monarch to evacuate the capital. The Đại Việt annals reported that the evacuation was carried out "in an orderly manner"; however, this is viewed[by whom?] as an embellishment, because the Vietnamese had to retreat in disarray, leaving their weapons behind in the capital.[33] Emperor Trần Thái Tông fled to an offshore island,[34][27] while the Mongols occupied the capital city, Thăng Long (modern-day Hanoi). They found their envoys in prison, with one of them already deceased. In revenge, Mongols massacred the city's inhabitants.[29] Although the Mongols had successfully captured the capital, the provinces around the capital were still under Vietnamese control.[33] While Chinese source material is sometimes misinterpreted as saying that Uriyangkhadai withdrew from Vietnam due to poor climate,[35][36] Uriyangkhadai left Thang Long after nine days to invade the Song dynasty in modern-day Guangxi in a coordinated Mongol attack, with some armies attacking in Sichuan under Möngke Khan and other armies attacking in modern-day Shandong and Henan.[18] The Mongol army gained the popular local nickname of "Buddhist enemies" because they did not loot or kill while moving north to Yunnan.[37] After the loss of a prince and the capital, emperor Trần Thái Tông submitted to the Mongols.[30] One month after fleeing the capital in 1258, emperor Trần Thái Tông returned and commenced regular diplomatic relations and a tributary relationship with the Mongol court, treating the Mongols as equals to the embattled Southern Song dynasty without renouncing Đại Việt's ties to the Song.[38][27] In March 1258, emperor Trần Thái Tông retired and let his son, prince Trần Hoảng, succeed to the throne. In the same year, the new emperor sent envoys to the Mongols in Yunnan.[29][27] Having the submission and assistance of the new emperor of Đại Việt, Uriyangkhadai immediately assembled an army of 3,000 Mongol cavalry and 10,000 Dali troops upon his return to Yunnan. Via Đại Việt, he launched a new assault on the Song in the summer of 1259, moving into Guilin and reaching as far as Tanzhou (in modern-day Hunan Province) in a joint offensive led by Möngke.[39] The sudden death of Möngke in August 1259 halted the Mongol efforts to conquer Song China. In Mongolia, prince Ariq Böke proclaimed himself as ruler of the Mongol Empire. In China, prince Kublai also declared himself as the ruler of the empire.[40] In the following years, the Mongols were preoccupied with the succession struggle between Ariq Böke and Kublai, and the two kingdoms in Vietnam were left in peace.[39] Invasion of Champa (1283) Mongol Yuan campaigns against Burma, Champa, and Dai Viet and the route of Marco Polo. Drawn by German archaeologist Albert Herrmann. The location of Cangigu (i.e., Caugigu, which was Tung-king, or Kiao-chi, or Annam) was too far to the west, inside the Mien (Burma) country, contrary to the interpretation of the great French sinologist Paul Pelliot and modern Marco-Polo scholars. See the Yule-Cordier map version below. Modern-day remains of Vijaya (Đồ Bàn) vte Champa Wars Background and diplomacy With the defeat of the Song dynasty in 1276, the newly established Yuan dynasty turned its attention to the south, particularly Champa and Đại Việt.[41] Kublai was interested in Champa because, by geographical location, it dominated the sea routes between China and the states of Southeast Asia and India.[41] The Mongol court viewed Champa as a key region to control trade in Southeast Asia.[42] The position of Historian Geoff Wade is that they would be able to gain access to commodities from the states across the Indian Ocean through Arab and Persian merchants managing trade from Champa.[43] Although the king of Champa accepted the status of a Mongol protectorate,[44] his submission was unwilling. In late 1281, Kublai issued the edict ordering the mobilization of a hundred ships and ten thousand men, consisting of official Yuan forces, former Song troops and sailors, to invade Sukhothai, Lopburi, Malabar and other countries, and Champa "will be instructed to furnish the food supplies of the troops."[45] However, his plans were canceled, as the Yuan court discussed that they would send envoys to these countries to make them submit to the Yuan. This suggestion was successfully adopted, but these missions all had to pass by or stop at Champa. Kublai knew that pro-Song sentiment was strong in Champa, as the Cham king had been sympathetic to the Song cause.[45] A large number of Chinese officials, soldiers and civilians who fled from the Mongols were refugees in Champa, and they had inspired and incited to hate the Yuan.[46] Thus, in the summer of 1282, when Yuan envoys He Zizhi, Hangfu Jie, Yu Yongxian, and Yilan passed through Champa, they were detained and imprisoned by the Cham Prince Harijit.[46] In summer 1282, Kublai ordered Sogetu of the Jalairs, the governor of Guangzhou, to lead a punitive expedition to the Chams. Kublai declared: "The old king (Jaya Indravarman V) is innocent. The ones who oppose to our order are his son (Harijit) and a Southern Chinese."[46] In late 1282, Sogetu led a maritime invasion of Champa with 5,000 men, but could only muster 100 ships and 250 landing crafts because most of the Yuan ships had been lost in the invasions of Japan.[47] Campaign Further information: Battle of Thị Nại Bay Sogetu's fleet arrived on Champa's shore, near modern-day Thị Nại Bay [vi], in February 1283.[48] The Cham defenders had already prepared a fortified wooden palisade on the west shore of the bay.[46] The Mongols landed at midnight of the 13th February and attacked the stockade on three sides. The Cham defenders opened the gate, marched to the beach and met the Yuan with 10,000 men and several scores of elephants.[10] Undaunted, the highly experienced Mongol general selected points of attack and launched an assault so fierce that they broke through.[48] The Yuan eventually routed their enemy and captured Cham forts and their vast supplies. Sogetu arrived in the Cham capital Vijaya and captured the city two days later, but then withdrew and set up camps outside the city.[10] The aged Champa king Indravarman V abandoned his temporary headquarters in the palace, and set fire to his warehouses and retreated out of the capital, avoiding Mongol attempts to capture him in the hills.[10] The Cham king and prince Harijit both refused to visit the Yuan camp. The Cham executed two captured Yuan envoys and ambushed Sogetu's troops in the mountains.[10] As the Cham delegates continued to offer excuses, the Yuan commanders gradually began to realize that the Chams had no intention of coming to terms and were only using the negotiations to stall for time.[10] From a captured spy, Sogetu knew that Indravarman had 20,000 men with him in the mountains; he had summoned Cham reinforcements from Panduranga (Phan Rang) in the south, and also dispatched emissaries to Đại Việt, the Khmer Empire and Java to seek aid.[49] On 16 March, Sogetu sent a strong force into the mountains to seek and destroy the hideout of the Cham king. It was ambushed and driven back with heavy losses.[50] His son would wage guerrilla warfare against the Yuan for the next two years, eventually wearing down the invaders.[51] The Yuan withdrew to the wooden stockade on the beach to await reinforcements and supplies. Sogetu's men unloaded the supplies, cleared fields farming rice so he was able to harvest 150,000 piculs of rice that summer.[50] Sogetu sent two officers to threaten the king of the Khmer Empire, Jayavarman VIII, but they were detained.[50] Stymied by the withdrawal of the Champa king, Sogetu asked Kublai for reinforcements. In March 1284 another Yuan fleet with more than 20,000 troops in 200 ships under Ataqai and Ariq Qaya anchored off the coast of Vijaya. Sogetu presented his plan to have reinforcements to invade Champa marching through the vassalised Đại Việt. Kublai accepted his plan and put his son Toghan in command, with Sogetu as second in command.[50] Second invasion of Đại Việt (1285) King Trần Nhân Tông, the political leader of Đại Việt during the Mongol invasion, ruled from 1278 to 1293 Interlude (1260–1284) Marco Polo's itinerary in South West China and South East Asia in the Yule-Cordier edition of Marco Polo's Travels. The location of Caugigu (which was a different name for the kingdom of Dai Viet, i.e., Kiao-chi, or Tung-King, or Annam) in this map is more accurate than in the map by A. Herrmann above. In 1261, Kublai enfeoffed Trần Thánh Tông as "King of Annam" (Annan guowang) and began operating a nominal darughachi (tax collector) in Dai Viet.[52] The darughachi, Sayyid Ajall, reported that the Vietnamese king had corrupted him occasionally.[53] In 1267, Kublai was dissatisfied with the tributary arrangement, which granted the Yuan dynasty the same amount of tribute that the former Song dynasty had received, and demanded larger payments.[38] He sent his son Hugaci to the Vietnamese court with a list of demands,[53] such as both monarchs submitting in person, censuses, taxes in both money and labor, incense, gold, silver, cinnabar, agarwood, sandalwood, ivory, tortoiseshell, pearls, rhinoceros horn, silk floss, and porcelain cups – requirements that neither of the two kingdoms had met.[38] Later that year, Kublai required that the Đại Việt court send two Muslim merchants, whom he believed to be in Đại Việt, to China, in order for them to serve on missions in the Western regions, and designated the heir apparent of the Yuan as "Prince of Yunnan" to take control of Dali, Shanshan (Kunming) and Đại Việt. This meant that Đại Việt would be incorporated into the Yuan Empire, which the Vietnamese found totally unacceptable.[54] In 1278, Trần Thái Tông died. King Trần Thánh Tông retired and made crown prince Trần Khâm (known as Trần Nhân Tông, and to the Mongol as Trần Nhật Tôn) his successor. Kublai sent a mission led by Chai Chun to Đại Việt, and once again urged the new king to come to China in person, but the king refused.[55] The Yuan then refused to recognize him as king, and tried to place a Vietnamese defector as king of Đại Việt.[56] Frustrated with the failed diplomatic missions, many Yuan officials urged Kublai to send a punitive expedition to Đại Việt.[57] In 1283, Khublai Khan sent Ariq Qaya to Đại Việt with an imperial request for Đại Việt to help attack Champa through Vietnamese territory, and demands for provisions and other support for the Yuan army, but the king refused.[58][38] In 1284, Kublai appointed his son Toghon to command an overland force to assist Sogetu. Toghon demanded that the Vietnamese allow his passage to Champa, in order to attack the Cham army from both north and south, but they refused, and concluded that this was the pretext for a Yuan conquest of Đại Việt. Nhân Tông ordered a defensive war against the Yuan invasion, with Prince Trần Quốc Tuấn in charge of the army.[59] A Yuan envoy recorded that the Vietnamese had already sent 500 ships to help the Cham.[60] In fall 1284, Toghon began moving his troops to the borders with Đại Việt, and in December an envoy reported that Kublai had ordered Toghon, Pingzhang Ali and Ariq Qaya to enter Đại Việt under the guise of attacking Champa, but instead to invade Đại Việt.[58] Southern Song Chinese military officers and civilian officials who had intermarried with the Vietnamese ruling elite then went to serve the government in Champa, as recorded by Zheng Sixiao.[39] Southern Song soldiers were part of the Vietnamese army prepared by King Trần Thánh Tông against the second Mongol invasion.[61] Also in the same year, the Venetian traveler Marco Polo almost certainly visited Đại Việt[d] (Caugigu)[e][c] almost when the Yuan and the Vietnamese were ready for war,[c] then he went to Chengdu via Heni (Amu).[66] War Portrait of Prince Trần Quốc Tuấn (1228–1300), who was known to the Mongol as Hưng Đạo đại Vương, the military hero of Đại Việt during the second and third Mongols invasions Second Mongol invasion of Vietnam (1284–1285) Mongol advance (January – May 1285) Vietnamese sailing boat, 1828, image by John Crawfurd The Yuan land army invaded Đại Việt under the command of prince Toghon and Uighur general Ariq Qaya, while Tangut general Li Heng and Muslim general Omar led the navy.[67] Another Yuan column entered Đại Việt from Yunnan, led by Nasr ad-Din bin Sayyid Ajall – the Khwarezmian general who was appointed to govern Yunnan and lead the second campaign against the Kingdom of Bagan in winter 1277 – while Yunnan was left to the hands of Yaghan Tegin. The Vietnamese forces were reported to number 100,000.[11] Trần Hưng Đạo was the general of the combined Đại Việt land and naval forces.[68] Yuan troops crossed the Nam Quan Pass on 27 January 1285, divided in six columns while working their way down the rivers.[11] After defeating Vietnamese troops at the battles of Khả Ly and Nội Bàng (in present-day Lục Ngạn), Mongol forces under Omar reached Prince Quốc Tuấn's stronghold at Vạn Kiếp (modern-day Chí Linh) on 10 February, and three days later they broke the Vietnamese defenses to reach the north bank of the Cầu River.[11] On 18 February, the Mongols used captured boats and defeated the Vietnamese, successfully crossing the river. All captured soldiers found to have the words "Sát Thát" ("Death to the Mongols") tattooed on their arms were executed. Instead of advancing further south, the victorious Yuan forces remained on the north bank of the river, fighting daily skirmishes but making few advances against the Vietnamese in the south.[11] Toghon sent an officer name Tanggudai to instruct Sogetu, who was in Huế, to march north in a pincer movement while at the same time sending frantic appeals for reinforcements from China, and wrote to the Vietnamese king that the Yuan forces had come in, not as enemies but as allies against Champa.[11] In late February, Sogetu's forces marching north through the pass of Nghệ An, capturing the cities of Vinh and Thanh Hoá, as well as Vietnamese supply bases in Nam Định and Ninh Bình, and taking prisoner 400 Song officers who had fought alongside the Vietnamese. Prince Quốc Tuấn divided his forces in an effort to prevent Sogetu from joining with Toghon, but this effort failed and they were overwhelmed.[67] Phạm Ngũ Lão fought against the Mongols in this second Mongol invasion as well as in the third Mongol invasion.[f][g] Trần envoys offered peace terms, which were rejected by Toghon and Omar.[68] In late February, Toghon launched a full offensive against Đại Việt. A Yuan fleet under the command of Omar attacked along the Đuống River, captured Thang Long and drove king Nhân Tông to the sea.[67] After hearing about the successive defeats, king Trần Nhân Tông travelled by small boat to meet Trần Hưng Đạo in Quảng Ninh and ask him if Đại Việt should surrender.[68] Trần Hưng Đạo resisted and asked for the aid of the private armies of the Trần princes.[68] Many Vietnamese royals and nobles were frightened and defected to the Yuan, including prince Trần Ích Tắc.[71] Having successfully captured the capital Thăng Long, the Yuan found that the city's grain had been taken to deny Yuan access to supplies and therefore Yuan forces could not turn the occupied capital into a strategic gain.[51] The following day, Toghon entered the capital and found nothing but an empty palace.[72] Trần Hưng Đạo escorted the Trần royalty to their royal estates at Thiên Trường [vi] in Nam Định.[68][59] The Yuan forces under Omar launched two naval offensives in April and drove the Vietnamese forces further south.[67] The Trần forces had their forces surrounded by the Yuan army while their king fled along the coast to Thanh Hóa.[68] Vietnamese counterattack (May – June 1285) Vietnamese military officers during Lý-Trần dynasties. Vietnamese Imperial Guards during Lý-Trần dynasties. The medieval Vietnamese army consisted mostly of lightly-armored troops, but were capable of maritime-warfare. In May 1285, the situation began to change, as the Yuan had overextended their supply network. Toghon ordered Sogetu to lead his troops in an attack on Nam Định (the main Vietnamese base) to seize supplies.[73] As fighting broke out, Toghon ordered Sogetu to return to Champa and for Omar to join his withdrawal on the Red River.[68] Toghon prepared to leave Đại Việt for Siming in Guangxi, China, with the warm weather and disease in Đại Việt given as the official reason.[68] In a naval battle in Hàm Tử (in modern-day Khoái Châu District) in late May 1285, a contingent of Yuan troops was defeated by a partisan force consisting of former Song troops led by Zhao Zhong under prince Nhật Duật and native militia.[71] On 9 June 1285, Mongol troops evacuated Thăng Long to withdraw to China.[73][68] The History of Yuan records the Mongols withdrawing from Thăng Long because "the Mongol troops and horses could not exercise their familiar skills in battle there" while the An Nam chí lược records that "Annam attacked and retook the capital La Thành (Thănh Long)."[68] Taking advantage, the Vietnamese force under Prince Quốc Tuấn sailed north and attacked the Yuan camp at Vạn Kiếp, and further severed Yuan supplies.[69] Many Yuan generals were killed in the battle, among them the senior Li Heng, who was struck by a poisoned arrow.[9] The Yuan forces collapsed into disarray, and Sogetu was killed in the Battle of Chương Dương near the capital by a joint force of Trần Quang Khải, Phạm Ngũ Lão and Trần Quốc Tuấn in June 1285.[74] To protect Toghon, the Yuan soldiers made a copper box in which they hid him inside until they were able to retreat to the Guangxi border.[75] Yuan generals Omar and Liu Gui ran to the sea and escaped to China in a small boat. The Yuan remnants retreated to China in late June 1285, as the Vietnamese king and royals returned to the capital in Thăng Long following six-month conflict.[75][76] Third invasion of Đại Việt (1287–1288) Third Mongol invasion of Vietnam (1287-1288) Background and preparations In 1286, Kublai appointed Trần Thánh Tông's younger brother, Prince Trần Ích Tắc, as the King of Đại Việt from afar with the intent of dealing with the uncooperative incumbent Trần Nhân Tông.[77][78] Trần Ích Tắc, who had already surrendered to the Yuan, was willing to lead a Yuan army into Đại Việt to take the throne.[77] The Khan cancelled plans underway for a third invasion of Japan in August to concentrate military preparations in the south.[79][80] He accused the Vietnamese of raiding China, and pressed the efforts of China should be directed towards winning the war against Đại Việt.[81] In October 1287, the Yuan land forces commanded by Toghon (assisted by Nasr al-Din and Kublai's grandson Esen-Temür; Esen-Temur meanwhile was fighting in Burma)[12] moved southwards from Guangxi and Yunnan in three divisions led by general Abači and Changyu,[82] with the naval expedition led by generals Omar, Zhang Wenhu, and Aoluchi.[77] The army was complemented by a large naval force that advanced from Qinzhou, with the intent to form a large pincer movement against the Vietnamese.[77] The force was composed of 70,000 Mongols, Jurchen, Han Chinese from Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Hunan, and Guangdong; 6,000 Yunnanese troops; 1,000 former Song troops; 6,000 Guangxi troops; 17,000 Li troops from Hainan; and 18,000 crewmen.[82] Total Yuan forces raised up to 170,000 men for this invasion.[9] Campaign Further information: Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288) Wooden stakes from the Bach Dang river in Museum of Vietnam Bạch Đằng River The Yuan were successful in the early phases of the invasion, occupying and looting the Đại Việt capital.[77] In January 1288, as Omar's fleet passed through the Ha Long Bay to join Toghon's forces in Vạn Kiếp, followed by Zhang Wenhu's supply fleet, the Vietnamese navy under prince Trần Khánh Dư attacked and destroyed Wenhu's fleet.[83][79] The Yuan land army under Toghon and naval fleet under Omar, both already in Vạn Kiếp, were unaware of the loss of their supply fleet.[83] Despite that, in February 1288 Toghon ordered to attack the Vietnamese forces. Toghon returned to the capital Thăng Long to loot food, while Omar destroyed king Trần Thái Tông's tomb in Thái Bình.[79] Due to a lack of food supplies, Toghon and Omar's army retreated from Thăng Long to their fortified main base in Vạn Kiếp northeast of Hanoi on 5 March 1288.[84] They planned to withdraw from Đại Việt but waited for the supplies to arrive before departing.[83] As food supplies ran low and their position became untenable, on the 30th March 1288 Toghon ordered a retreat to China.[84] He boarded a large warship while Prince Hưng Đạo, aware of the Yuan retreat, prepared to attack. The Vietnamese destroyed bridges and roads and created traps along the route of the retreating Yuan army. They pursued Toghon's forces to Lạng Sơn, where on April 10th,[13] Toghon himself was struck by a poisoned arrow,[2] and was forced to abandon his ship and avoid highways as he was escorted back through the forests to Siming in Guangxi, China by his few remaining troops.[13] Most of Toghon's land force were killed or captured.[13] Meanwhile, the Yuan fleet commanded by Omar was retreating through the Bạch Đằng river.[84] At the Bạch Đằng River in April 1288, Prince Hưng Đạo commanding the Vietnamese forces staged an ambush on Omar's Yuan fleet in the third Battle of Bạch Đằng.[77] The Vietnamese placed hidden metal-tipped wooden stakes in the riverbed and attacked the fleet once it had been impaled on the stakes.[83] Omar himself was taken prisoner.[79][13] The Yuan fleet was destroyed and the army retreated in disarray without supplies.[83] A few days later, Zhang Wenhu, who believed that the Yuan armies were still in Vạn Kiếp and was unaware of the Yuan defeat, sailed his transport fleet into the Bạch Đằng river and was destroyed by the Vietnamese navy.[13] Only Wenhu and a few Yuan soldiers managed to escape.[13] Phạm Ngũ Lão fought against the Mongols in this third Mongol invasion as well as in the second Mongol invasion mentioned above.[h][g] Several thousand Yuan troops, unfamiliar with the terrain, were lost and never regained contact with the main force.[77] An account of the battle by Lê Tắc, a Vietnamese scholar who defected to the Yuan in 1285, said that the remnants of the army followed him north in retreat and reached Yuan-controlled territory on the Lunar New Year's Day in 1289.[77] When the Yuan troops were withdrawn before malaria season, Lê Tắc went north with them.[86] Many of his companions, ten thousand died between the mountain passes of the Sino-Viet borderlands.[77] After the war Lê Tắc got permanently exiled in China, and was appointed by the Yuan government to the position of Prefect of Pacified Siam (Tongzhi Anxianzhou).[86] Aftermath Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty was unable to militarily defeat the Vietnamese and the Cham.[87] Kublai, angry over the Yuan defeats in Đại Việt, banished prince Toghon to Yangzhou[88] and wanted to launch another invasion, but was persuaded in 1291 to send Minister of Rites Zhang Lidao to induce Trần Nhân Tông to come to China. The Yuan mission arrived at the Vietnamese capital on 18 March 1292 and stayed in a guesthouse, where the king made a protocol with Zhang.[89] Trần Nhân Tông sent a mission with a memo to return with Zhang Lidao to China. In the memo, Trần Nhân Tông explained his inability to visit China. The detail said that of ten Vietnamese envoys to Dadu, six or seven of them died on the way.[90] He wrote a letter to Kublai Khan describing the death and destruction the Mongol armies had wrought, vividly recounting the brutality of the soldiers and the desecration of sacred Buddhist sites.[87] Instead of going to Dadu himself, the Vietnamese king sent a golden statue to the Yuan court and an apology for his "sins".[13][2] Another Yuan mission was sent in September 1292.[90] As late as 1293, Kublai Khan planned a fourth military campaign to install Trần Ích Tắc as the King of Đại Việt, but the plans for the campaign were halted when Kublai Khan died in early 1294.[86] The new Yuan emperor, Temür Khan announced that the war with Đại Việt was over, and sent a mission to Đại Việt to restore friendly relations between the two countries.[91] Đại Việt Three Mongol and Yuan invasions devastated Đại Việt, but the Vietnamese did not succumb to Yuan demands. Eventually, not a single Trần king or prince visited China.[92] The Trần dynasty of Đại Việt decided to accept the supremacy of the Yuan dynasty in order to avoid further conflicts. In 1289, Đại Việt released most of the Mongol prisoners of war to China, but Omar, whose return Kublai particularly demanded, was intentionally drowned when the boat transporting him was contrived to sink. [79] In the winter of 1289–1290, King Trần Nhân Tông led an attack into modern-day Laos, against the advice of his advisors, with the goal of preventing raids from the inhabitants of the highlands.[93] Famines and starvations ravaged the country from 1290 to 1292. There were no records of what caused the crop failures, but possible factors included neglect of the water control system due to the war, the mobilization of men away from the rice fields, and floods or drought.[93] Although Đại Việt repelled the Yuan, the capital Thăng Long was razed, many Buddhist sites were decimated, and the Vietnamese suffered major losses in population and property.[87] Nhân Tông rebuilt the Thăng Long citadel in 1291 and 1293.[87] In 1293, Kublai detained the Vietnamese envoy, Đào Tử Kí, because Trần Nhân Tông refused to go to Khanbaliq in person. Kublai's successor Temür Khan (r.1294-1307), later released all detained envoys and resumed their tributary relationship initially established after the first invasion, which continued to the end of the Yuan.[19] Champa The Champa Kingdom decided to accept the supremacy of the Yuan dynasty and also established a tributary relationship with the Yuan.[19] Afterwards, Champa was never mentioned in the History of Yuan again as a target for the Mongols.[68] In 1305, Cham King Chế Mân (r. 1288 – 1307) married the Vietnamese princess Huyền Trân (daughter of Trần Nhân Tông) as he ceded two provinces Ô and Lý to Đại Việt.[17] What following next was a series of chronic Cham–Vietnamese fighting and major wars over the disputed control of ceded provinces for the rest of the 14th century. Transmission of gunpowder Before the 13th century, gunpowder in Vietnam was used in the form of firecrackers for entertainment.[94] During the Mongol invasions, an influx of Chinese immigrants from the Southern Song fleeing to Southeast Asia brought gunpowder weapons with them, such as fire arrows and fire lances. The Vietnamese and the Cham developed these weapons further in the next century;[95] when the Ming dynasty conquered Đại Việt in 1407, they found that the Vietnamese were skillful in making a type of fire lance that fires an arrow and a number of lead bullets as co-viative projectiles.[96][97] Legacy Despite the military defeats suffered during the campaigns, they are often treated as a success by historians for the Mongols due to the establishment of tributary relations with Đại Việt and Champa.[14][15][16] The initial Mongol goal of placing Đại Việt, a tributary state of the Southern Song dynasty, as their own tributary state was accomplished after the first invasion.[14] However, the Mongols failed to impose their demands of greater tribute and direct darughachi oversight over Đại Việt's internal affairs during their second invasion and their goal of replacing the uncooperative Trần Nhân Tông with Trần Ích Tắc as the King of Đại Việt during the third invasion.[38][77] Nonetheless, friendly relations were established and Dai Viet continued to pay tribute to the Mongol court.[98][99] Vietnamese historiography emphasizes the Vietnamese military victories.[14] The three invasions, and the Battle of Bạch Đằng in particular, are remembered within Vietnam and Vietnamese historiography as prototypical examples of Vietnamese resistance against foreign aggression.[38] Prince Trần Hưng Đạo is greatly remembered as a national hero who secured Vietnamese independence.[88]

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 Four major military campaigns were launched by the Mongol Empire, and later the Yuan dynasty, against the kingdom of Đại Việt (modern-day northern Vietnam) ruled by the Trần dynasty and the kingdom of Champa (modern-day central Vietnam) in 1258, 1282–1284, 1285, and 1287–88. The campaigns are treated by a number of scholars as a success due to the establishment of tributary relations with Đại Việt despite the Mongols suffering major military defeats.[14][15][16] In contrast, modern Vietnamese historiography regards the war as a major victory against the foreign invaders.[17][14] The first invasion began in 1258 under the united Mongol Empire, as it looked for alternative paths to invade the Song dynasty. The Mongol general Uriyangkhadai was successful in capturing the Vietnamese capital Thang Long (modern-day Hanoi) before turning north in 1259 to invade the Song dynasty in modern-day Guangxi as part of a coordinated Mongol attack with armies attacking in Sichuan under Möngke Khan...
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